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Apgar Scale

Apgar scale

The Apgar score was devised in 1952 by Virginia Apgar as a simple and repeatable method to quickly and summarily assess the health of newborn children immediately after childbirth. The Apgar score is determined by evaluating the newborn baby on five simple criteria on a scale from zero to two and summing up the five values thus obtained. The resulting Apgar score ranges from zero to 10. The test is generally done at one and five minutes after birth, and may be repeated later if the score is, and remains, low. Scores below 3 are generally regarded as critically low, with 4 to 7 fairly low and over 7 generally normal. Low scores at the one minute test may require medical attention, but are not an indication of longer term problems, particularly if there is an improvement by the stage of the five minute test. If the Apgar score remains below 3 at later times such as 10, 15, or 30 minutes, there is a risk that the child will suffer longer term neurological damage. There is also a small but significant increase in the risk of cerebral palsy. However, the purpose of the Apgar test is to determine quickly whether a newborn needs immediate medical care; it was not designed to make long-term predictions on a child's health. Some ten years after the initial publication, the acronym APGAR was coined in the US as a mnemonic learning aid: Appearance (skin color), Pulse (heart rate), Grimace (reflex irritability), Activity (muscle tone), and Respiration. The mnemonic was introduced in 1963 by the pediatrician Dr. Joseph Butterfield. The same acronym is used in German (Atmung, Puls, Grundtonus, Aussehen, Reflexe), although the letters have different meanings. Another such backformation attempting to make Apgar an acronym is American Pediatric Gross Assessment Record. The test, however, is named for Dr. Apgar.

Literature

- Apgar, Virginia. [http://apgar.net/virginia/Apgar_Paper.html A proposal for a new method of evaluation of the newborn infant], Curr. Res. Anesth. Analg. 1953;32, pp. 260–267

1952

1952 (MCMLII) was a leap year starting on Tuesday (link will take you to calendar).

Events

January

- January 8 - West Germany has 8 million refugees inside its borders.
- January 24 - Sudden heavy snowfall in Algeria.
- January 24 - Vincent Massey sworn in as first Canada-born Governor-General of Canada.

February

Governor-General of Canada and her mother, Queen Elizabeth at the funeral of King George VI.]]
- February 2 - A tropical storm forms just north of Cuba moving northeast. The storm makes landfall in southern Florida the next day. It is the earliest reported landfall from a tropical storm, and the earliest formation of a tropical storm on record in the Atlantic basin.
- February 6 - Elizabeth II becomes Queen upon the death of her father George VI.
- February 6 - In the United States, a mechanical heart is used for the first time in a human patient.
- February 14 to February 25 - Winter Olympics in Oslo
- February 15 - Funeral of King George VI takes place at St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle.
- February 16 - Roman Catholic Diocese of Baker formed in Eastern Oregon.
- February 20 - Emmett L. Ashford becomes the first African-American umpire in organized baseball by being authorized to be a substitute umpire in the Southwestern International League.
- February 21 - Winston Churchill scraps UK compulsory national Identity Cards
- February 26 - United Kingdom Prime Minister Winston Churchill announces that his nation has an atomic bomb.

March

- May 7-12 - Marcel Bardiauc sails through Kap Horn
- March 10 - General Fulgencio Batista takes power in Cuba - again
- March 15 to 16 - 73 inches (1,870mm) of rain falls in Cilaos, Réunion, the most rainfall ever in one day
- March 20 - The United States Senate ratifies a peace treaty with Japan.
- March 21 - The last two executions in the Netherlands take place.
- March 21 - Dr Kwame Nkrumah elected the Prime Minister of the Gold Coast
- March 27 - Failed assassination attempt against Konrad Adenauer

April

- April 4 - In Hague tribunal, Israel demands reparations worth 3 billion dollars from Germany.
- April 18 - Bolivia National Revolution: universal vote enables indigenous and women to vote, nationalisation of mines and agrarian reform.
- April 18 - West Germany and Japan form diplomatic relations.
- April 23 - Nuclear test in Nevada desert.
- April 28 - The Treaty of San Francisco goes into effect, formally ending the occupation of Japan.
- April 28 - Treaty of Taipei (Treaty of Peace between Japan and t

May

- May 1 - East Germany threatens to form its own army.
- May 2 - First passenger jet flight route between London and Johannesburg
- May 3 - U.S. lieutenant colonels Joseph O. Fletcher and William P. Benedict land a plane at the geographic North Pole.
- May 6 - Farouk of Egypt had himself announced as a descendant of prophet Muhammad.
- May 13 - Pandit Nehru forms his first government
- May 15 - Diplomatic relations established between the governments of Israel and Japan at the level of Legations.

June

- June 1 - Catholic church bans books of André Gide.
- June 5 - Remains of a Viking ship found near Boston, Massachusetts.
- June 14 - The keel is laid for the U.S. nuclear submarine USS Nautilus.
- June 15 - The Diary of Anne Frank published.
- June 21 - U.S. launches the first nuclear submarine USS Nautilus.
- June 29 - Finnish Armi Kuusela wins the title of Miss Universe.
- June 30 - Marshall Aid ends.

July

- July 13 - East Germany announces formation of its people's army.
- July 19 to August 3 - The Summer Olympic Games are held in Helsinki.
- July 23 - General Mohammed Naguib leads The Free Officers (formed by Gamal Abdel Nasser - the real power behind the coup) in the overthrow of King Farouk of Egypt.
- July 25 - Puerto Rico becomes a self-governing commonwealth of the United States.
- July 26 - Military coup in Egypt ousts King Farouk.

August

Farouk, Italy, Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands form the European Coal and Steel community, the foundation organisation what will become the European Union.]]
- August 10 - Establishment of the European Coal and Steel community.
- August 11 - Jordanian army forces king Talal to resign due to mental illness - his successor is his son Hussein of Jordan.
- August 13 - Japan joins IMF.
- August 14 - West Germany joins IMF.
- August 14 - West Germany joins World Bank.
- August 16 - Lynmouth in North Devon England is devastated by floods, death toll of 34.
- August 26 - British passenger jet flies twice over Atlantic Ocean in the same day.
- August 27 - Reparation negotiations between West Germany and Israel end in Luxembourg - Germany will pay 3 billion Deutsche Marks.
- August 29 - Premiere of John Cage's 4' 33" in Woodstock, New York.
- August 30 - Last Finnish war reparations to Soviet Union.

September

- September 2 - Dr. C. Walton Lillehei and Dr. F. John Lewis perform first open-heart surgery at the University of Minnesota.
- September 4 - September 9 - Thick smog in London, England causes 4,000 fatalities.
- September 18 - Soviet Union vetoes Japan's application for membership in the United Nations.

October

- October 8 - Negotiations of ceasefire in Korea are postponed.
- October 8 - Three-train crash in Harrow railway station in England - 110 dead.
- October 14 - United Nations begins work in the new United Nations building in New York City
- October 19 - Alain Bombard begins to sail from Canary Islands to Barbados in 65 days; he reaches them December 23
- October 20 - Martial law in Kenya due to Mau Mau uprising.

November

- November 1 - Nuclear testing: Operation Ivy - The United States successfully detonates the first hydrogen bomb, codenamed "Mike" ["m" for megaton], at Eniwetok island in the Bikini atoll located in the Pacific Ocean.
- November 4 - 8.25 Richter scale earthquake in Kamchatka
- November 4 - U.S. presidential election, 1952: Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower defeats Democrat Adlai Stevenson (correctly predicted by UNIVAC computer).
- November 18 - Jomo Kenyatta is arrested in Kenya for alleged connection to Mau Mau uprising
- November 20 - Fireball crashes in a backyard in Havelock North, New Zealand
- November 20 - First official passenger flight over the North Pole from Los Angeles to Copenhagen
- November 21 - Show trial in Czechoslovakia sentences 11 ex-communist officials to death - all of them Jews.
- November 25 - Agatha Christie's murder-mystery play The Mousetrap opens at the Ambassadors Theatre in London; as of 2004, it continues, next door at the St. Martin's Theatre, and remains the longest continuously running production of a play in history.
- November 29 - Korean War: Newly-elected U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower fulfills a political campaign promise by traveling to Korea to find out what can be done to end the conflict.

December

- December 1 - The New York Daily News carries a front page story announcing that Christine Jorgensen, a transsexual woman in Denmark became the recipient of the first successful sexual reassignment operation.
- December 4 - Great Smog of 1952: A "killer fog" descends on London ("Smog" for "smoke" and "fog" becomes a word).
- December 14 - First successful surgical separation of Siamese twins in Mount Sinai Hospital, Ohio.
- December 25 - Shooting incident in West Berlin - one West German soldier is killed
- December 26 - Joseph Ivor Linton, first Israeli Minister Plenipotentiary in Japan, presents his credentials to the Japanese Emperor.

Undated events

- 3300 die of polio in U.S.; 57,000 children are paralyzed
- National Security Agency founded
- Winston Churchill scraps UK compulsory national Identity Cards
- Cold War over Germany's frontiers intensify
- Sister Theresa becomes Mother Theresa and begins her charity work in Calcutta
- Charles Chaplin expelled from U.S.
- Cheez Whiz introduced
- Traffic lights in New York City
- Wernher von Braun talks about a manned flight to Mars.
- Nordic Council agrees free transport of people, goods and services throughout the Nordic Countries.
- National Prohibition Foundation incorporated.

Births

January-March

- January 11 - Ben Crenshaw, American golfer
- January 11 - Lee Ritenour, jazz guitarist and composer
- January 20 - Paul Stanley, American musician (KISS

Virginia Apgar

Virginia Apgar, M.D. (June 7, 1909 - August 7, 1974) specialised in anesthesia and childbirth. She graduated from Mount Holyoke College in 1929, and Columbia University in 1933. In 1953, she introduced the first test, called the Apgar Score, to assess the health of newborn babies. It is administered one minute and five minutes after birth, and sometimes also at 10 minutes.

References

- [http://www.whonamedit.com/doctor.cfm/204.html Full biography] on [http://www.whonamedit.com WhoNamedIt.com] Apgar, Virginia Apgar, Virginia Apgar, Virginia Apgar, Virginia Apgar, Virginia

Childbirth

Childbirth (also called labour, birth, partus or parturition) is the culmination of a human pregnancy with the emergence of a newborn infant from its mother's uterus. A woman is considered to be in labour when she begins experiencing regular, strong uterine contractions, accompanied by changes of her cervix — primarily effacement and dilation. While childbirth is widely experienced as painful, some women do report painless labours. When the baby is born its birth weight is determined. birth weight

The normal birth

First stage: contractions

A typical human childbirth will begin with the onset of contractions of the uterus. The frequency and duration of these contractions varies with the individual. The onset of labour may be sudden or gradual. A gradual onset with slow cervical change towards 3 cm (just over 1 inch) dilation is referred to as the "latent phase". A woman is said to be in "active labour" when contractions have become regular in frequency (3-4 in 10 minutes) and about 60 seconds in duration. The now powerful contractions are accompanied by cervical effacement and dilation greater than 3 cm. The labour may begin with a rupture of the amniotic sac, the paired amnion and chorion ("breaking of the water"). The contractions will accelerate in frequency and strengthen. In the "transition phase" from 8 cm–10 cm (3 or 4 inches) of dilation, the contractions often come every two minutes are typically lasting 70–90 seconds. Transition is often regarded as the most challenging and intense for the mother. Some mothers say things like "I give up, I want to stop now. Forget this!" It is also the shortest phase. During a contraction the long muscles of the uterus contract, starting at the top of the uterus and working their way down to the bottom. At the end of the contraction, the muscles relax to a state shorter than at the beginning of the contraction. This draws the cervix up over the baby's head. Each contraction dilates the cervix until it becomes completely dilated, often referred to as 10+ cm (4") in diameter. During this stage, the expectant mother typically goes through several emotional phases. At first, the mother may be excited and nervous. Then, as the contractions become stronger, demanding more energy from the mother, mothers generally become more serious and focused. However, as the cervix finishes its dilation, some mothers experience confusion or bouts of self-doubt or giving up. The duration of labour varies widely, but averages some 13 hours for women giving birth to their first child ("primiparae") and 8 hours for women who have already given birth. If there is a significant medical risk to continuing the pregnancy, induction may be necessary. As this carries some risk, it is only done if the child or the mother are in danger from prolonged pregnancy. 42 weeks gestation without spontaneous labour is often said to be an indication for induction although evidence does not show improved outcomes when labour is induced for post-term pregnancies. Inducing labour increases the risk of cesarean section and uterine rupture in mothers that have had a previous cesarean section.

Second stage

induction] In the second stage of labour, the baby is expelled from the womb through the vagina by both the uterine contractions and by the additional maternal efforts of "bearing down". The imminence of this stage can be evaluated by the Malinas score. The baby is most commonly born head-first. In some cases the baby is "breech" meaning either the feet or buttocks are descending first. Babies in the breech position can be delivered vaginally by a midwife, though in some areas finding an experienced willing attendant can be difficult. There are several types of breech presentations, but the most common is where the baby's buttocks are delivered first and the legs are folded onto the baby's body with the knees bent and feet near the buttocks (full or breech). Others include frank breech, much like full breech but the babies legs are extended toward his ears, and footling or incomplete breech, in which one or both legs are extended and the foot or feet are the presenting part. Another rare presentation is a transverse lie. This is where the baby is sideways in the womb and a hand or elbow has entered the birth canal first. While babies who present transverse will often move to a different position, this is not always the case. The length of the second stage varies and is affected by whether a woman has given birth before, the position she is in and mobility. The length of the second stage should be guided by the condition of the fetus and health of the mother. Problems may be encountered at this stage due to reasons such as maternal exhaustion, the front of the baby's head is facing forwards instead of backwards (posterior baby), or extremely rarely, because the baby's head does not fit properly into the mother's pelvis (Cephalo-Pelvic Disproportion (CPD)). True CPD is typically seen in women with rickets and bone deforming illnesses or injuries, as well as arbitrary time limits placed on second stage by caregivers or medical facilities. Immediately after birth, the child undergoes extensive physiological modifications as it acclimatizes to independent breathing. Several cardiovascular structures start regressing soon after birth, such as the ductus arteriosus and the foramen ovale. In some cultures, the father cuts the umbilical cord and the infant is given a lukewarm bath to remove blood and some of the vernix on its skin before being handed back to its parents. The medical condition of the child is assessed with the Apgar score, based on five parameters: heart rate, respiration, muscle tone, skin color, and response to stimuli. Apgar scores are typically assessed at both 1 and 5 minutes after birth.

Third stage: placenta

Apgar score] In this stage, the uterus expels the placenta (afterbirth). Nursing the baby will help to cause this. The mother normally loses less than 500 mL of blood. Blood loss will be greater if the umbilical cord be used to tug on the placenta. It is essential that the placenta be examined to ensure that it was expelled whole. Remaining parts can cause postpartum bleeding or infection.

After the birth

infection Medical professionals typically recommend breastfeeding of the first milk, colostrum, to reduce postpartum bleeding/hemorrhage in the mother, and to pass immunities and other benefits to the baby. Parents usually assign the infant its given names soon after birth. Often people visit and bring a gift for the baby. Many cultures feature initiation rites for newborns, such as naming ceremonies, baptism, and others. Mothers are often allowed a babymoon period where they are relieved of their normal duties to recover from childbirth and establish breastfeeding with their babies. Length of this period varies. In China this is 30 days and is referred to as "doing the month". A birth story may be written, detailing the events of the birth. The story may be posted to a blog or web forum.

Variations

When the amniotic sac has not ruptured during labour or pushing, the infant can be born with the membranes intact. This is referred to as "being born in the caul." The caul is harmless and its membranes are easily broken and wiped away by the doctor or midwife assisting with the childbirth. In medieval times, and in some cultures still today, a caul was seen as a sign of good fortune for the baby, in some cultures was seen as protection against drowning. The caul was often impressed onto paper and stored away as an heirloom for the child. With the advent of modern interventive obstetrics, premature artificial rupture of the membranes has become common, so babies are rarely born in the caul.

Pain

The amounts of pain experienced by women during childbirth vary. For some women, the perceived pain is intense and agonizing; for other women there is little to no perceived pain. Many factors affect pain perception, including cultural ideas of childbirth, fear, number of previous births, fetal presentation, birthing position, and a woman's natural pain threshold. Uterine contractions are always intense during childbirth, but a woman may or may not experience them as pain. Some women sleep through much of the labor. Rarely, mothers experience very pleasurable sensations and muscular contractions which they believe to be orgasms. Pain does serve a purpose. Pain directs a person to change behavior, often to reduce injury. For example, pain may direct a woman to squat or to get on all fours. It may direct her to push or to wait. It may direct her to reach down to adjust the position of an emerging baby. When pain is suppressed, the woman can not respond to this natural signal.

Non-medical pain control

Many women believe that reliance on analgesic medication is unnatural, or worry that it may harm the child, but are still very concerned about labour pain. To alleviate pain, they may undergo psychological preparation, education, massage, hypnosis, water therapy in a tub or shower. Most women also find helpful the emotional support and comfort measures by a friend, husband, partner, or a trained professional doula. Birthing in a squatting or crawling position will usually help, though the position is awkward for observers. These methods present no risk to the mother or baby, and many find them effective.

Medical pain control

In Europe, doctors commonly prescribe inhaled nitrous oxide gas for pain control; in the UK, midwives may use this gas without a doctor's prescription. Pethidine (with or without promethazine) may be used early in labour, as well as other opioids; if given too late, they may cause respiratory depression in the infant. Popular medical pain control in hospitals include regional anesthetics (epidural blocks, or spinal anaesthesia); these anesthetics are often used for pain control, and are a necessity for Cesarean surgery, unless the patient undergoes general anesthetic. Doctors favor the epidural block because medication does not enter the mother's circulatory system, thus it does not cross the placenta and enter the bloodstream of the fetus. Different measures for pain control have varying degrees of success and side effects to mother and baby. Administration must be carefully timed. For example, an epidural block given too early in labour can stop or slow labour, and given too late in labour can hinder maternal efforts to push out the baby. These risks should be balanced against the fact that childbirth can be extremely painful, and anesthetics are an effective and generally safe pain treatment.

Complications and Risks of Birth

Problems that occur during childbirth are called complications. They can affect the mother or the baby. Sometimes they cause injury or even death. Doctors and midwives are trained to deal with these problems should they occur. Infant deaths (neonatal deaths from birth to 28 days, or perinatal deaths if including fetal deaths at 28 weeks gestation and later) are around 1% in modernized countries. The risk of maternal death during childbirth in developed nations is comparatively low; only about 1 in 1800 mothers die in childbirth (only 1 in 3700 in North America). In the third-world, it is a much riskier proposition: on average 1 in 48 women die during childbirth. The "natural" mortality rate of childbirth — where nothing is done to avert maternal death — has been estimated as being between 1,000 and 1,500 deaths per 100,000 births. The most important factors affecting mortality in childbirth are adequate nutrition and access to quality medical care ("access" is affected both by the cost of available care, and distance from health services). "Medical care" in this context does not refer specifically to treatment in hospitals, but simply the presence of an attendant with midwifery skills. A 1983-1989 study by the Texas Department of Health revealed that the infant death rate was 0.57% for doctor-attended births, and 0.19% for births attended by non-nurse midwives. Conversely, some studies demonstrate a higher perinatal mortality rate with assisted home births . It is generally accepted that in developed countries, properly assisted home births carry no greater risks than hospital birth for low-risk pregnancies. Around 80% of pregnancies are low-risk. Factors that may make a birth high risk include prematurity, high blood pressure, diabetes and previous cesarean section. One of the most dangerous risks to the fetus is that of premature birth, and its associated low neonatal weight. The more premature (or underweight) a baby is, the greater the risks for neonatal death and for pulmonary, respiratory, neurological or other sequelae. About 12% of all infants born in the United States are born prematurely. In the past 25 years, medical technology has greatly improved the chances of survival of premature infants in industrialized nations. In the 1950s and 1960s, approximately half of all low birth weight babies in the US died. Today, more than 90% survive. The first hours of life for "premies" are critical, especially the very first hour of life. Rapid access to a Neonatal Intensive Care Unit is of paramount importance. Some of the possible complications are:
- Heavy bleeding during or after childbirth, which is the most common cause of mortality in new mothers, in both developed and undeveloped nations. Heavy blood loss leads to hypovolemic shock, insufficient perfusion of vital organs and death if not rapidly treated by stemming the blood loss (medically with ergometrine and pitocin or surgically) and blood transfusion. Hypopituitarism after obstetric hypovolemic shock is termed Sheehan's syndrome.
- Non-progression of labour (longterm contractions without adequate cervical dilation) is generally treated with intravenous synthetic oxytocin preparations. If this is ineffective, Caesarean section may be necessary. Changes in maternal position is effective in many cases.
- Fetal distress is the development of signs of distress by the child. These may include rising or decreasing heartbeat (monitored on cardiotocography/CTG), shedding of meconium in the amniotic fluid, and other signs.
- Non-progression of expulsion (the head or presenting parts are not delivered despite adequate contractions): this can require interventions such as vacuum extraction, forceps extraction or Caesarean section.
- In the past, a large proportion of women died from infection puerperal fever, but since the introduction of basic hygiene during parturition by Ignaz Semmelweis, this number has fallen precipitously.
- Lacerations can be painful. An episiotomy is occasionally necessary to avoid tears involving the anal sphincter, but its routine use - once normal - has now been shown to be harmful.

Professions associated with childbirth

Midwives are experts in normal birth. Midwives believe that childbirth is a normal process that is best accomplished with as little interference as possible. Midwives are trained to assist at births, either through direct-entry or nurse-midwifery programs. Lay midwives typically train in apprenticeship programs with experienced midwives. Obstetricians are experts in dealing with normal births as well as abnormal births and pathological labour conditions. Obstetricians in most countries are also trained as surgeons, so they can undertake surgical procedures relating to childbirth. Such procedures include caesarean sections, episiotomies, or emergency hysterectomies. Obstetricians' tendency to intervene surgically to overcome complications has led to criticism that they perform surgery too readily. In the United States, obstetric malpractice settlements are typically very large, so obstetricians argue that they are forced to intervene aggressively to limit their liability. In the United States, a doctor who specializes in caring for women with pregnancy complications is often referred to as a maternal-fetal medicine sub-specialist. Obstetric nurses assist doctors, mothers, and babies prior to, during, and after the birth process. Some midwives are also obstetric nurses. Obstetric nurses hold various certifications, and typically undergo additional obstetric training in addition to standard nursing training.

Social aspects

In some cultures, childbirth is considered to be the beginning of a person's life, and a person's age is defined relative to it. Many families view the placenta as a special part of birth, since it has been the child's life support for so many months. Many parents like to see and touch this mysterious organ. In some cultures, parents plant a tree along with the placenta on the child's first birthday. The placenta may be eaten by the newborn's family, ceremonially or otherwise. The oldest American woman known to give birth was Arceli Keh, aged 63. In November 2004 Aleta St. James, a 56 year old single mother gave birth to twins conceived through in vitro fertilization. In 2005, a 67 year old Romanian woman gave birth by cesarean to one surviving twin.

Legal aspects

In some legal jurisdictions, the place of childbirth decides the nationality of a child (under the doctrine of Jus soli)

Psychological aspects

Childbirth is a stressful event. As with any stressful event, strong emotions can be brought to the surface. Some women report symptoms compatible with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after birth. Between 70 and 80% of mothers in the United States report some feelings of sadness or "baby blues" after childbirth. Postpartum depression may develop in some women; about 10% of mothers in the United States are diagnosed with PPD. Preventative group therapy has proven effective as a prophylactic treatment for postpartum depression. Childbirth is also stressful for the infant. Stresses associated with breech birth, such as asphyxiation, may affect the infants brain. Medicating the mother against her labor pain is a widespread practice in hospitals. Intravenously-administered drugs — although not, as discussed above, epidurals — may reach the infant's bloodstream through the umbilical cord, with uncertain effects. It is not known how the birth experience affects the development of personality in the infant. It was once thought that newborns do not have the capacity to feel pain or fear, but now some parents are choosing alternative birth settings (other than the hospital) in an attempt to create a more comfortable environment for the newborn.

References

# # Van Lerberghe W, De Brouwere V. Of blind alleys and things that have worked: history’s lessons on reducing maternal mortality. In: De Brouwere V, Van Lerberghe W, eds. Safe motherhood strategies: a review of the evidence. Antwerp, ITG Press, 2001 (Studies in Health Services Organisation and Policy, 17:7–33). # [http://www.safemotherhood.org/facts_and_figures/maternal_mortality.htm Safer Motherhood Fact Sheet: Maternal Mortality ] # [http://www.who.int/whr/2005/chapter4/en/index1.html World Health Organization 2005 World Health Report, Chapter 4: Risking Death To Give Life.] # Zlotnick C, Johnson SL, Miller IW, Pearlstein T, Howard M. Postpartum depression in women receiving public assistance: pilot study of an interpersonal-therapy-oriented group intervention, Am J Psychiatry. 2001 Apr;158(4):638-40. [PMID 11282702]

External links

- [http://www.med-help.net/Emergency%2DChild%2DBirth.htm Emergency Child Birth] - Provides video clip and colour photos (real) of child birth, and also emergency measures
- [http://www.nvsh.nl/Website_Engels/Texts/Sexual_Information/Basics/FOL_1.htm How you came into the world and grew inside a womb: from cells and embryo to baby] - Has colour photos (real) and explanations
- [http://www.cnn.com/2004/HEALTH/parenting/11/12/pregnant.59.ap/index.html AP story on pregnancies in the elderly]
- [http://www.naturalchildbirth.org NaturalChildbirth.org] - Information and discussion forums about natural childbirth options
- [http://www.lamaze.org Lamaze International]
- [http://www.chabad.org/library/article.asp?AID=72141 Jewish customs for conduct during Pregnancy and Birth] chabad.org Category:Human development Category:Midwifery Category:Obstetrics ja:出産

Neurology

Neurology is a branch of medicine dealing with the nervous system and its disorders. Physicians specializing in the field of neurology are called neurologists. Surgery on the nervous system is performed by physicians with specialized training - neurosurgeons, and in some cases, interventional neuroradiologists.

Field of work

Neurological disorders are disorders that affect the central nervous system (brain, brainstem and cerebellum), the peripheral nervous system (peripheral nerves - cranial nerves) included), or the autonomic nervous system (parts of which are located in both central and peripheral nervous system). Major conditions include:
- headache disorders such as migraine and tension headache (cluster headache)
- epilepsy and seizure disorders
- neurodegenerative disorders, the most common class being dementias, including Alzheimer's disease
- cerebrovascular disease, such as transient ischemic attacks, and strokes (ischemic or hemorrhagic)
- sleep disorders
- cerebral palsy
- bacterial, fungal, viral and parasitic infections of the central nervous system (encephalitis), brain envelopes (meningitis) and peripheral nerves (neuritis), such as brain abscess, herpetic meningoencephalitis, aspergilloma, cerebral hydatic cyst, tetanus, botulism
- neoplasms - tumors of the brain and its envelopes (brain tumors), spinal cord tumors, tumors of the peripheral nerves (neuroma)
- movement disorders such as Parkinson's disease, chorea, hemiballismus, tic disorder, and Gilles de la Tourette syndrome
- demyelinating diseases of the central nervous system, such as multiple sclerosis, and of the peripheral nervous system, such as Guillain-Barré syndrome and chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (CIDP)
- spinal cord disorders - tumors, infections, trauma, malformations (e.g. myelocele, meningomyelocele, tethered cord)
- disorders of peripheral nerves, muscle and neuromuscular junctions
- traumatic injuries to the brain, spinal cord and peripheral nerves
- Altered mental status, encephalopathy, stupor and coma

Clinical tasks

General caseload

Neurologists are responsible for diagnosing and treating all of the above conditions, except for surgical interventions, which fall into the responsibility of neurosurgeons, and in some cases interventional neuroradiologists. In some countries, additional legal responsibilities of a neurologist include making a finding of brain death when it is suspected that a patient is deceased, and filing the necessary paperwork for issuance of a death certificate. Neurologists frequently care for people with hereditary (genetic) disease when the major manifestations are neurologic, as is frequently the case. Neurologists may specialize in neurophysiology, the field responsible for electroencephalography (EEG), nerve conduction studies (NCS) and electromyography (EMG) as well as visual evoked potential (VEP) testing. Others may develop an interest in particular subfields, such as the movement disorders, headaches, epilepsy or neuromuscular disease.

Overlap with psychiatry

Although many mental illnesses are believed to be neurological disorders affecting the central nervous system, traditionally they are classified separately, and treated by psychiatrists. In a 2002 review article in the American Journal of Psychiatry, Professor Joseph B. Martin, Dean of Harvard Medical School and a neurologist by training, wrote that 'the separation of the two categories is arbitrary, often influenced by beliefs rather than proven scientific observations. And the fact that the brain and mind are one makes the separation artificial anyway.' (Martin JB. The integration of neurology, psychiatry and neuroscience in the 21st century. Am J Psychiatry 2002; 159:695-704) There are strong indications that neuro-chemical mechanisms play an important role in the development of, for instance, bipolar disorder and schizophrenia. As well, 'neurological' diseases often have 'psychiatric' manifestations, such as post-stroke depression, depression and dementia associated with Parkinson's disease, mood and cognitive dysfunctions in Alzheimer's disease, to name a few. Hence, there is no sharp distinction between neurology and psychiatry on a biological basis - this distinction has mainly practical reasons and strong historical roots (such as the dominance of Freud's psychoanalytic theory in psychiatric thinking in the first three quarters of the 20th century - which has since then been largely replaced by the focus on neurosciences - aided by the tremendous advances in genetics and neuroimaging recently.)

External links

- [http://www.aan.com American Academy of Neurology]
- [http://www.neuropsychological.blogspot.com/ brainblog]: news about our knowledge of the brain and behavior.
- [http://neurology.jwatch.org/ Journal Watch Neurology]: collection of the most important neurology studies for practicing clinicians, summarized and with commentary.

Mnemonic

A mnemonic (pronounced in American English, in British English) is a memory aid. Mnemonics are often verbal, are sometimes in verse form, and are often used to remember lists. Mnemonics rely not only on repetition to remember facts, but also on associations between easy-to-remember constructs and lists of data, based on the principle that the human mind much more easily remembers data attached to spatial, personal or otherwise meaningful information than that occurring in meaningless sequences. While in philosophy it has been often said that our knowledge of things is a multiplication of its attributes. As it is more that we become knowable of a thing as we know more of its attributes, as like things we can attribute to it. In a simple demonstration, let k be knowledge, and if every x consists of yz, then yz(k)=x(k), while k for either y or z precedes not to a complete value k of x. Therefore, the derivatives of attributes are x(k)/y(k)=z(k) and x(k)/z(k)=y(k). Also, indices may be raised to attributes. Such as, if we are knowable of attributes to y and z, as like y²z²=x², then our knowledge of x will be raised as well. The word mnemonic shares etymology with Mnemosyne, the name of the titan who personified Memory in Greek mythology. The first known reference to mnemonics is the method of loci described in Cicero's De Oratore.

Examples of simple mnemonics

One common mnemonic device for remembering lists consists of an easily remembered word, phrase, or rhyme whose initials or other characteristics are associated with the list items. The idea lends itself well to memorizing hard-to-break passwords as well.

Science and technology

Astronomy

- Stellar classification uses a peculiar group of letters, easily remembered using the phrase, "Oh Be A Fine Girl, Kiss Me." With two new categories L and T for brown dwarfs, the revised version to "Oh Be A Fine Girl/Guy, Kiss My Lips Tenderly." (Sometimes "Right Now Smack Wow." was added at the end, although these classes are not part of the sequence and are no longer current.)
- For naming the planets in order from the Sun, the phrases:
- "My Very Eager Mother Just Sewed Us New Pajamas"
- "My Very Easy Memory Jingle Seems Useful Naming Planets"
- "Mary's Violet Eyes Made John Stay Up Nights Proposing"
- "Man Very Early Made Jars Stand Up Nearly Perfect"
- "Mexican Vultures Enjoy Making Jam Sandwiches Using New Plums"
- "Many Visitors Eat Meat, Just Simple Under-Nourished People"
- "My Very, Educated Mother Just Showed Us Nine Planets"
- "Many Vikings Enjoyed Making Jelly Sometimes Using Norse Plums"
- "My Very Easy Method Just Speeds Up Naming Planets"
- "Many Vast Elephants Munch Jam Sandwiches Until [they] Nearly Pop"
- "Many Very Early Men Just Sat Under Neath Pluto"
- "Mom Visits Every Monday, Just Stays Until Noon, Period"
- "My Very Excellent Mother Just Stores Up Nine Planets"
- "My Very Excellent Mother Just Served Us Nine Pizzas"

Biology, Medicine & Anatomy

Medical mnemonics are quite common, see [http://www.medicalmnemonics.com]. Some of them are less politically correct than others, and some are profane (presumably because their shock value makes them easier to remember). The list below doesn't censor, but in some cases does provide "clean" alternatives.

Hydralazine

- An example of a visual mnemonic for the drug "hydralazine" could be represented as "lazy hydra" that is on strike holding a sign "NO more work". "NO" in the above case symbolizes Nitrous oxide, which is related to the drug's mechanism of action. For examples of this technique, see [http://www.mediglyphics.com/public/Pharmacology/].

Cranial nerves

:(The letters stand for Olfactory nerve, Optic nerve, Occulomotor nerve, Trochlear nerve, Trigeminal nerve, Abducent nerve, Facial nerve, Auditory nerve, Glossopharyngeal nerve, Vagus nerve, Accessory nerve, and Hypoglossal nerve.) In the ones marked with a "@", the accessory nerve is referred to by its alternate name "Spinal accessory nerve".
- "Ooh, Ooh, Ooh To Touch And Feel Very Good Velvet. Such Heaven!" @
- "On Old Olympus' Towering Top A Finn And German Viewed Some Hops" @
- "On Old Olympus' Tiny Top A Finn And German Viewed Some Hops", or "On Old Olympus' Towering Top A Finely Vested German Viewed A Hawk" (with variations; some say "terraced tops", "towering top(s)" or "topmost top", and "viewed some hops" is sometimes rendered as "vaulted a hedge").
- "O! O! O! To Touch And Feel A Girl's Vagina And Hymen." Another to help remember the types of information these nerves carry (sensory, motor, or both) is thus: Some Say Marry Money, But My Brother Says Big Brains Matter More.

External carotid artery branches

:(The letters stand for superior thyroid artery, ascending pharyngeal artery, lingual artery, facial artery, occipital artery, posterior auricular artery, superficial temporal artery, and maxillary artery)
- "Some Anatomists Like F
-
- g, Others Prefer S & M"
Biological groupings in taxonomy
:(The letters stand for Kingdom, Phylum, Class (biology), Order (biology), Family (biology), Genus, and Species.)
- "Kings Play Chess On Fine Green Satin"
- "Kings Play Cards On Fat Green Stools"
- "Kings Play Chess On Fine Grained Sand"
- "Kings Play Chess Often For Great Sport"
- "Kings Play Chess On Funny Green Squares"
- "Kings Play Chess On Flat Girls' Stomachs".
- "Kids Prefer Cheese Over Fried Green Spinach".
- "Kids Playing Chase On Freeway Get Squashed"
- "King Phillip Came Over For Good Spaghetti".
- "King Phillip Came Over From Germany, Swimming"
- "King Phillip Could Only Find Green Socks".
- "King Penguins Copulate Often For Greater Satisfaction"
- "Some Girls Fill Out Clothes Pretty Keenly" (reverse order)
DNA characteristics
Many biology students use the tune of "Row row row your boat" to assist in remembering the characteristics of DNA:
We love DNA,
Made of nucleotides,
A phosphate, sugar and a base,
Bonded down one side.

Adenine and Thymine,
Make a lovely pair,
Guanine without Cytosine,
Would be rather bare.

Chemistry

- Chemistry students use the phrase "LEO says GER" to keep the two halves of a redox process straight, since the Loss of Electrons is Oxidation while the Gain of Electrons is Reduction. Another version is the word "OIL-RIG", meaning Oxidation Is Loss, Reduction Is Gain (of electrons).
- The first few elements of the Periodic Table can be remembered with "Harry He Likes Beer But CanNot Obtain Food".
- A longer version, covering the elements from Helium to Potassium, is "Here Lies Benjamin Bold; Cry Not Old Friend; Needlessly Nature Magnifies All Simple People Sometimes, Clots and Kings." Skipping Calcium, the subsequent elements from Scandium to Zinc (the first group of transition metals) can be remembered via "Scandinavian T V Corrupts Many French Coalmen's Nieces and Cousins (Cu Zins)".
- The universal gas constant "PV/T" was remembered in the 1960's by saying "Pee" "Vee" over the "Telephone". Pee Vee was a television character in the 1960s that was always talking on the telephone.
Electronics
To help remember the color code that is used to identify the value of electronic resistors, the following phrase was in common use in electronics training in the US Navy: "Bad Boys Race Our Young Girls Behind Victory Garden Walls". The letters correspond to the colors black, brown, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet, grey, and white, which in turn correspond to the digits 0-9. Three other mnemonics that work on the same principle are: Bad Boys Ravish Only Young Girls But Violet Goes Willingly.
Bad Beer Rots Our Young Guts But Vodka Goes Well.
B. B. ROY of Great Britain has a Very Good Wife In the network design OSI model, the seven layers (Physical, Data link, Network, Transport, Session, Presentation, and Application) can be remembered with the mnemonic: Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza Away
Engineering

- A mnemonic to remember which way to turn common (right handed) screws and nuts, including light bulbs is "Righty tighty, lefty loosey". An alternative is to remember that cLockwise has an L (for loosen), while counTer-clockwise has a "T" (for tighten).
Geology

- Geological time scale
- The full mnemonic can be broken down to recall each of the epochs.
- Camels Often Sit Down Carefully Perhaps Their Joints Creak Possibly Easing Oil May Prove Positively Helpful.
- Paleozoic
- Camels Often Sit Down Carefully Perhaps
- Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, Permian.
- Mesozoic
- Their Joints Creak
- Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous.
- Cenozoic
- Possibly Easing Oil May Prove Positively Helpful.
- Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene Holocene.
- Mohs scale of mineral hardness
- Tall Girls Can Flirt And Other Queer Things Can Do
- Talc, Gypsum, Calcite, Fluorite, Apatite, Orthoclase, Quartz, Topaz, Corundum, Diamond.
Mathematics
See also: Trigonometry mnemonics
- Many mnemonics have been devised for remembering the digits of pi, consisting of phrases or verses in which successive digits of pi are obtained by counting the number of letters in each word. (Fortunately, the first thirty digits of pi contain no zeroes). Some are:
- "May I have a number?"(May = 3, I = 1, have = 4, etc. 3.1416)
- "May I have a large container of coffee?" (3.1415926)
- "May I have a large container of orange juice?" (3.14159 265)
- "How I wish I could recollect pi easily today." (3.14159 265)
- "How I want a drink, alcoholic of course, after the heavy lectures involving quantum mechanics!" (3.14159 265358979)
- (Alternate version of previous) "How I need a drink, alcoholic in nature, after the heavy lectures involving quantum mechanics!" (3.14159 265358979)
- See [http://users.aol.com/s6sj7gt/mikerav.htm "Poe, E.: Near a Raven"] for an extreme example.
- Two mnemonics for the constant e (the base for natural logarithms) are "We require a mnemonic to remember e whenever we scribble math" and "To express e, remember to memorize a sentence to simplify this". The lengths of the words constitute the number 2.7182818284, an approximation of e to 11 decimal places.
- Many people remember the order of operations in arithmetic with the word Brackets Of (fractions: 1/2 of 2) Division Multiplication Addition Subtraction (BODMAS or BOMDAS). In the United States, students often use the sentence Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally, where the E signifies exponentiation. Occasionally the phrase is modified to My Dear Mother's Aunt Sally, with the second M standing for modulo; this is more often seen in the context of programming languages, where the modulo operation is more common.
- Many secondary school students remember the basic trigonometric functions with the phrase SOH-CAH-TOA (pronounced "soak a toe-uh").
SOH ... Sine = Opposite leg divided by the Hypotenuse
CAH ... Cosine = Adjacent leg divided by the Hypotenuse
TOA ... Tangent = Opposite leg divided by the Adjacent leg

- A much sportier way to remember it is with the phrase:

- Saddle Our Horses, Canter Away Happily Toward Other Adventures.

- Some Old Hippie Caught Another Hippie Tripping On Acid.
Or, as popularized at Cincinnati's, they use the simple phrase Sally Can Tell : Oscar Has A Hard On Always. (It's been theorized that mnemonic devices that reference strong emotions, such as sexual feelings, imprint a stronger memory. However "Hat On" works equally well, but seems to be less memorable.)

Another phrase used in English schools is Six Overweight Heffalumps Came And Heavily Trod On Arthur.
Oscar Had A Heap Of Apples also works if you can remember the sine, cosine, tangent order.
- "One Hopes, And Hopes, On America" was widely taught to British schoolchildren during World War II (the sine-cosine-tangent order was presumed). Not only was it a good mnemonic, it also served to reassure the children that Great Britain was not doomed to Nazi annihilation.
- You can also remember the basic trigonometric functions with the phrase "Some Old Hippie, Caught Another Hippie, Tripping On Acid", or simply, "Old Hippies Are High On Acid
- You can also consider: Some People Have, Curly Black Hair, Through Proper Brushing, Where S=Sine;P=Perpendicular;B=Base;C=Cos;T= Tan (S=P/H;C=B/H;T=P/B)
- Another, very true, trigonometric mnemonic taught to British schoolchildren was "Signs Of Happiness Come After Having Tankards Of Ale".
- Yet another alternative (taught at King Alfred's Grammar School, Wantage, Oxon, England in the 1960s) is:
Over Head Subway (O/H = S)
Algebra Helps Clarity (A/H = C)
Oxford Are Terrific (O/A = T). Singapore secondary school students have over the years used the trigonometric mnemonic of TOA, CAH, SOH, which can be pronounced as TU'A-CAR-SO, literally A middle-aged lady with a rather large pairs of legs in Hokkien and Teochew, some of the languages making up the Singlish language used in Singapore.
- For remembering the order of taking the derivative of a quotient in calculus, the phrase "ho-di-hi, hi-di-ho, hoho" can be useful, where ho means the bottom, hi means the top, and di means the derivative. So, d(a/b)/dx = (b da/dx - a db/dx)/b^2
Physics

- The name Roy G. Biv helps us to remember the order of the colors in the spectrum. In England "Richard Of York Gave Battle In Vain" is popular (Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet). In an alternate version, "Battle" is replaced with "Birth".
- A mnemonic used by physics students to remember the Maxwell relations in thermodynamics is "Good Physicists Have Studied Under Very Fine Teachers", which helps them remember the order of the variables in the square, in clockwise direction. Another mnemonic used here is "Valid Facts and Theoretical Understanding Generate Solutions to Hard Problems", which gives the letter in the normal left to right writing direction.
- The Group XVIII inert gases (helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon) may be recalled by the sentence "Heaven Never Arsked Kriegspiel's eXtra Rent"
- The phrase "We guarantee certainty, clearly referring to this light mnemonic." represents the speed of light in meters per second through the number of letters in each word: 299792458.
General knowledge

- "DOC" represents phases of the Moon by shape: "D" is the waxing moon; "O" the full moon; and "C" the waning moon. In the Southern hemisphere, this is reversed, and the mnemonic is "COD". A French mnemonic is that the waxing moon at its first "premier" quarter phase looks like a 'p', and the waning moon at its last "dernier" quarter looks like a 'd'. In German, the Moon is compared to a handwritten small letter a for "Abnehmen" (waning) and a z for "Zunehmen" (waxing). One more (Northern hemisphere) mnemonic, which works for most Romance languages, says that the Moon is a liar: it spells "C", as in crescere (Italian for "to grow") when it wanes, and "D" as in decrescere ("decrease") when it waxes.
- "Red, right, return" used to remember which sea mark denotes which side of a sailing channel.
- On the other hand, "there´s always some red port (wine) left" is also used to remember the basics in sea faring.
- Let's not forget the word that reminds us that the best plan is usually a simple plan: K-I-S-S (Keep it Simple, Stupid!)
Geography

- Many young Australian, Kiwi and British children remember the compass points in order in clockwise with the phrase Never Eat Soggy Weet-bix, or Never Eat Shredded Wheat (North, East, South, West). Weet-bix and Shredded Wheat are popular breakfast cereals in Australia, New Zealand and Britain. Another variation is Never Ever Smoke Weed. In the United States, school children are often taught with the phrase Never Eat Soggy Waffles or Never Eat Sour Worms.
- The acronym HOMES is also a mnemonic aid that can be used to remember the names of the North American Great Lakes (Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior). SMHEO is also useful to remember their positions from North to South, "Super Man Helps Every One" to remember their positions from West to East, and if you like, "Sam's Horse Must Eat Oats" helps one to remember their ordering by size from largest to smallest. (See if you can find others!)
- The Dutch Antilles can be remembered by thinking of the Leeward Islands as the ABC islands and of the Windward Islands as the SSS islands.
- :Note: The SSS islands are part of what are in English called the Leeward Islands, but in e.g. French, Spanish, German, Dutch and the English spoken locally these are considered part of the Windward Islands.
- The nations of Central America can be remembered (in order north to south) by "Better Go Home Every Night Completely Paid".(Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama)
- To help me remember whether you lose time or gain it, I made this little mnemonic: EWG and WEL. East to West Gains and West to East Loses
Military

- A mnemonic to remember different ranks of generals in the U.S. Military is "Be My Little General" for Brigadier General (one star), Major General (two stars), Lieutenant General (three stars), and General (four stars).
Music

- Beginning music students trying to memorize the notes of the staff using the mnemonics "Every Good Boy Does Fine", "Empty Garbage Before Dad Freaks", "Every Good Boy Deserves Fudge" (or, in Britain, "Every Good Boy Deserves Favour" - also the title of a play with music by Tom Stoppard and Andre Previn), and "FACE" for the lines and spaces of the Treble Clef respectively. The Bass Clef equivalents are "Good Boys Do Fine Always" or "Good Boys Deserve Fine Apples" or "Great Big Dogs Fight A lot" for lines, and "All Cows Eat Grass" or "All Cars Eat Gas" for spaces.
- :Note: This method of "remembering" note positions on treble and bass clefs will lead to problems later on in music study. It is much better to learn the note positions on the grand staff as a whole and regard the treble and bass clefs as markers.
- The strings on a six-string guitar with standard tuning can be remembered using the mnemonic "Elephants And Donkeys Grow Big Ears", or with another popular mnemonic, "Eddie Ate Dynamite; Good-Bye, Eddie".
- The spelling of 'Rhythm' can be remembered as "Rhythm Helps Your Two Hips Move", although only by saying it out loud.
The year

- The rhyme Thirty days hath September is commonly used as a mnemonic for the number of days in the months of the year.
- Another mnemonic for the days of the months is not a rhyme or a jingle, but a gestalt. Whereas the traditional mnemonic simply associates the name of the month with the number of days, this one emphasizes the sequence. The 31 and less-than-31-day months would be easy to remember if they simply alternated, but the pattern of month lengths is not that simple. They alternate until the fourth 31-day month, July, which is immediately followed by another 31-day month. Since the human hand has four fingers, one can, given an appropriate mind-set, perceive this pattern in a view of the knuckles of two fists, held together. The raised knuckles can be seen as the 31-day months, the dips between them as the 30-day-months-and-February, and the gap between the hands ignored. (Thus: left-hand-pinky-knuckle = January, dip = February, left-hand-ring-knuckle = March, dip = April, and so on to left-hand-index-knuckle = July; then continue with right-hand-index-knuckle = August, dip = September, etc). :gestalt

Anamonics (Scrabble)
Many tournament Scrabble players employ anamonics, a form of initialization mnemonic, for the purposes of learning and quickly recalling sets of acceptable words. An anamonic consists of a "stem" (usually of six or seven letters), paired with a semantically related phrase, in which each letter of the phrase can be added to the stem and rearranged to form at least one acceptable word. For example, if a player has the tiles ACDEIRT on her rack, and recalls the anamonic "DICE-ART = casino math diploma", she will know precisely which letters may be played through to form 8-letter words, and will hopefully be aided in finding the words: ACCREDIT, RADICATE, ACRIDEST, RATICIDE, DICENTRA, CERATOID, TIMECARD, CITRATED/TETRACID/TETRADIC, TRACHEID, READDICT, PICRATED, and ARTICLED/LACERTID.
Techniques
A mnemonic technique is one of many memory aids that is used to create associations among facts that make it easier to remember these facts. Popular mnemonic techniques include mind mapping and peg lists. These techniques make use of the power of the visual cortex to simplify the complexity of memories. Thus simpler memories can be stored more efficiently. For example, a number can be remembered as a picture. This makes it easier to retrieve it from memory. Mnemonic techniques should be used in conjunction with active recall to actually be beneficial. For example, it is not enough to look at a mind map; one needs to actively reconstruct it in one's memory. Other methods for remembering arbitrary numbers or number sequences use numerological (lit. number+word) systems such as the abjad, where each numeral is represented by a consonant sound. These systems take advantage of the memory's ability to store more information by organizing it into "chunks". An example of a widely used system for memorizing numbers as words is the major system.
Number rhyme system
This is an example of a "peg list". It is useful for remembering ordered lists, especially for people with strong auditory learning styles. The following numbered list is static. Note the rhyme of the digit and the word (one/bun, two/glue, and so on). The items you wish to remember should be associated with each word. A similar system utilizing a combination of this and the preceding "abjad" system can easily yield numbers through 100 or higher (ex. 76 lash, 77 lilly) # bun # glue # tea # door # hive # bricks # heaven # slate # line # pen
Egg and spear or number shape system
This is another peg system, much like the number-rhyme system but more suitable for those with visual learning styles (a one looks like a candle; a two looks like a swan, and so on). # Candle, spear # Swan # Bosom # Sail # Hook # Club # Cliff # Hourglass # Flag # Egg
Visual mnemonics
Visual mnemonics are popular in medicine as well as other fields. In this technique, an image portrays characters or objects whose name sounds like the item that has to be memorized. This object then interacts with other similarly portrayed objects that in turn represent associated information.
Other mnemonic systems

- Method of loci
- Mnemonic verses
- Acronym System
- Link System
- Room System
- Peg System including number-rhyme, number-shape, and number-consonant conversions.
- Major System
- Goroawase System
Arbitrariness of mnemonics
A curious characteristic of many memory systems is that mnemonic devices work despite being (or possibly because of being) illogical, arbitrary, and artistically flawed. "Roy" is a legitimate first name, but there is no actual surname "Biv" and of course the middle initial "G" is arbitrary. Why is "Roy G. Biv" easy to remember? Medical students never forget the arbitrary nationalities of the Finn and German. Any two of the three months ending in -ember would fit just as euphoniously as September and November in "Thirty days hath...", yet most people can remember the rhyme correctly for a lifetime after having heard it once, and are never troubled by doubts as to which two of the -ember months have thirty days. A bizarre arbitrary association may stick in the mind better than a logical one. One reason for the effectiveness of seemingly arbitrary mnemonics is the grouping of information provided by the mnemonic. Just as US phone numbers group 10 digits into three groups, the name "Roy G. Biv" groups seven colors into two short names and an initial. Various studies (most notably The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two) have shown that the human brain is capable of remembering only a limited number of arbitrary items; grouping these items into chunks permits the brain to hold more of them in memory.
Assembly mnemonics
In assembly language a mnemonic is a code, usually from 1 to 5 letters, that represents an opcode, a number. Programming in machine code, by supplying the computer with the numbers of the operations it must perform, can be quite a burden, because for every operation the corresponding number must be looked up or remembered. Looking up all numbers takes a lot of time, and mis-remembering a number may introduce computer bugs. Therefore a set of mnemonics was devised. Each number was represented by an alphabetic code. So instead of entering the number corresponding to addition to add two numbers one can enter "add". Although mnemonics differ between different CPU designs some are common, for instance: "sub" (subtract), "div" (divide), "add" (add) and "mul" (multiply). This type of mnemonic is different from the ones listed above in that instead of a way to make remembering numbers easier, it is a way to make remembering numbers unnecessary (by relying on some external way to tie each mnemonic to a number).
History of mnemonics
See the method of loci.
External links

Software

- [http://www.sweetscape.com/010memorizer/ 010 Memorizer (commercial software for memorizing numbers)]
- [http://got2know.net/2Know/index.html 2Know - Windows Freeware for converting numbers to words using the Major System. Now in English, German, and French.]
- [http://users.aber.ac.uk/auj/portfolio/mnemonic.shtml Random secure password generator with automatic mnemonic generation]
- [http://brianbondy.com/other/pi.aspx Free software to help memorise Pi]
Other

- [http://www.flocabulary.com/why.html Flocabulary] Rhyming mnemonics over Hip-Hop music to help students remember vocabulary words
- [http://www.aidtomemory.com AidToMemory.com, mnemonics collection and forum]
- [http://www.english.hb.pl/articles/tips/mnemonics/ Use mnemonics to learn English]
- [http://memory.uva.nl/memory/memimprovement/eng/link.htm Human Memory]
- [http://www.worldmemorychampionships.com/ Homepage of the World Memory Championships]
- [http://www.NakedScience.com Mick Curtis memory techniques] A practical memory course.
- [http://answers.google.com/answers/threadview?id=326639 Google Answers: How to Have a Good Memory]
- [http://www.memoryjoggers.com Memory Joggers] Using Mnemonics to teach children Math
- [http://www.thememorypage.net The Memory Page]: Tutorials and tips on how to improve your memory.
- [http://www.xs4all.nl/~jcdverha/scijokes/11.html Science mnemonics] From Science Jokes
- [http://www.mindtools.com/pages/main/newMN_TIM.htm Tools for Improving Your Memory] from Mind Tools
- [http://www.ba.infn.it/~zito/loci.html Method of loci] about Memory Palaces
- [http://www.keyword-method.de/ The Effect of the Integrated Keyword Method on Vocabulary Retention and Motivation by Dr. Joern Hauptmann]
- [http://www.medicalmnemonics.com/ Medical Mnemonics.com: World's Database of Medical Mnemonics] - "A free online searchable database of medical mnemonics to help students of health-related professions remember the important details."
- [http://www.happychild.org.uk/acc/tpr/mem/1198link.htm Memory Improvement and Learning Information]
- [http://www.vlaardingen.net/~tom/Menu_B.htm Memory Master]
- [http://www.demon.co.uk/mindtool/link.html Mind Tools]
- [http://www.silkwood.co.uk/cgi-bin/nav.pl?doc=100_Link_system.nav&uid=363703 World Wide Brain Club]
- Category:Educational technology ja:記憶術

Backformation

In etymology, the process of back-formation is the creation of a neologism by reinterpreting an earlier word as a compound and removing the affixes, or more generally, by trying to reconstruct an original form from any kind of derived form (including abbreviations or inflected forms). The resulting new word is also called a back-formation. The simplest case is when a longer form of a word pair predates what would usually be the basic form. For example, the noun resurrection was borrowed from Latin, and the verb resurrect was then derived from it. We expect the suffix -ion to be added to a verb to create a noun; when as in this case the suffix is removed from the noun to create the verb, this is a back-formation. Back formation becomes a kind of folk etymology when it rests on an erroneous understanding of the morphology of the longer word. For example, the singular noun asset is a back-formation from the plural assets. However, assets is originally not a plural; it is a loan-word from Anglo-Norman asetz. The -s was erroneously taken to be a plural inflection. Many words came into English by this route: Pease was once a mass noun but was reinterpreted as a plural, leading to the back-formation pea; the noun statistic was likewise a back-formation from the field of study statistics. In Britain the word burgle came into use in the 19th century as a back-formation from burglar (in America burglarize is used). Even though many legitimate English words are formed this way, new coinages may sound strange, and are often used for humorous effect. For example, gruntled or pervious (from disgruntled and impervious) would be considered mistakes today, and used only in humorous contexts. The comedian George Gobel regularly used original back-formations in his humorous monologues. Bill Bryson mused that the English language would be richer if we could call a tidy-haired person shevelled - as an opposite to dishevelled. Frequently back-formations begin in colloquial use and only gradually become accepted. For example, burger (and beefburger, cheeseburger, etc., from hamburger) is in common use today though it would have been considered awkward or colloquial as late as the 1940s; and enthuse (from enthusiasm) is gaining popularity, though it is still considered substandard by some today. When a back-formation rests on morphological misconception, some regard this a mark of ignorance. Homo sapiens is Latin for thinking man and is in fact singular (plural would be homines sapientes, but note that a species name is necessarily singular) but some people incorrectly take homo sapiens to be plural, and assume homo sapien to be the singular.

More examples of back-formation

- babysit from babysitter
- back-form from back-formation
- bushwhack from bushwhacker
- donate from donation
- edit from editor
- greed from greedy (the noun was originally "greediness")
- interfluve from interfluvial
- intuit from intuition
- isolate from isolated
- lase from laser
- liaise from liaison
- mase from maser
- mix from mixt (adj. from Old French, misconstrued as past participle of verb)
- pea from pease
- semantic (noun) from semantics
- sightsee from sightseeing
- televise from television

Pediatric Glasgow Coma Scale

The Pediatric Glasgow Coma Scale (also known as Pediatric Glasgow Coma Score or simply PGCS) is the equivalent of the Glasgow Coma Scale used to assess the mental state of adult patients. As many of the assessments for an adult patient would not be appropriate for infants, the scale was modified slightly. As with the GCS, the PGCS comprises three tests: eye, verbal and motor responses. The three values separately as well as their sum are considered. The lowest possible PGCS (the sum) is 3 (deep coma or death) whilst the highest is 15 (fully awake and aware person).

Best eye response: (E)

# No eye opening # Eye opening to pain # Eye opening to speech # Eyes opening spontaneously

Best verbal response: (V)

# No verbal response # Infant moans to pain # Infant cries to pain # Infant is irritable and continually cries # Infant coos or babbles (normal activity)

Best motor responses: (M)

# No motor response # Extension to pain (decerebrate response) # Abnormal flexion to pain for an infant (decorticate response) # Infant withdraws from pain # Infant withdraws from touch # Infant moves spontaneously or purposefully Any combined score of less than eight represents a significant risk to mortality. Category:Pediatrics Category:Scales

Charles XIII of Sweden and Norway

Charles XIII (Swe: Karl XIII) (October 7, 1748 – 1818), was King of Sweden from 1809 and King of Norway (where he was known as Charles II) from 1814 until his death. He was the second son of King Adolf Frederick of Sweden and Louisa Ulrika of Prussia, sister of Frederick the Great.

Life and politics

In 1772 he co-operated in the revolutionary plans of his brother Gustav III of Sweden. On the outbreak of the Russo-Swedish War of 1788 he served with distinction as admiral of the fleet, especially at the battles of Hogland (June 7, 1788) and Öland (July 26, 1789). On the latter occasion he would have won a signal victory but for the unaccountable remissness of his second-in-command, Admiral Liljehorn. On the death of Gustav III, Charles, now duke of Södermanland, acted as regent of Sweden till 1796; but the real ruler of the country was the narrow-minded and vindictive Gustaf Adolf Reuterholm, whose mischievous influence over him was supreme. These four years were perhaps the most miserable and degrading in Swedish history (an age of lead succeeding an age of gold, as it has well been called) and may be briefly described as alternations of fantastic jacobinism and ruthless despotism. On the accession of Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden (November 1796), the duke became a mere cipher in politics till the March 13, 1809, when those who had dethroned Gustav IV Adolf appointed him regent, and finally elected king by Riksdag of the Estates. But by this time he was prematurely decrepit, and Jean-Baptist Bernadotte took over the government as soon as he landed in Sweden, 1810. By the Union of Sweden and Norway in 1814 Charles became king of Norway under the name Carl II of Norway. After eight years as king only by title, Charles died on February 5, 1818.

Children

He had married his cousin Hedwig Elizabeth Charlotte of Holstein-Gottorp (1759–1818), on July 7, 1774 but both of their children would die in infancy. # Louisa Hedvig (1797) # Carl Adolf, Duke of Värmland (1798) With his mistress, Augusta Fersen he had a son: # Carl Löwenhielm 1772–1861

References

- ja:カール13世ヨハン (スウェーデン王)

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